Lesson 44 Patterns of culture文化的模式宾语从句 状语从句

Custom has not commonly been regarded as a subject of any great moment.

commonly ^{adj. usually; widely 通常；广泛地}

• The disease is commonly known as mad cow disease.
• a commonly used industrial chemical
• A little adolescent rebellion is commonly believed to be healthy. ^{少许青春期叛逆被普遍认为是一个健康的现象。}

moment ^{n. outstanding significance or value, importance 重要(古英语)}

• a discovery of great moment
• The minor disagreement was not considered a subject of any great moment by the diplomats.^{外交官们认为这个小小的分歧不具备任何重大意义。}

momentous ^{adj. vital, crucial, key, critical 重要的，重大的，关键的}

• We also face a momentous choice. ^{我们面对着重大抉择。}
• Last year was awful but momentous. ^{去年是糟糕的一年，但也具有重大意义。}
• The second order is more momentous. ^{第二项指令则更加声势浩大。}

The inner workings of our own brains we feel to be uniquely worthy of investigation, but custom, we have a way of thinking, is behaviour at its most commonplace.

the workings of sth. ^{the way that an organization, machine or organism operates 工作方式，运作方式，运转方式}

• the workings of government
• the workings of a car engine
• Our bodies play a bigger role in the workings of the mind than we ever knew. ^{我们的身体对大脑的影响远比我们知道的要多。}

We feel the inner workings of our brains to be uniquely worthy of investigation, … ^正常语序

宾语前置^{（为了强调宾语的重要性）}

• Smoking he absolutely loathes.
• That John is a thief I can’t believe.
• The president praised the loyalists, but the rebels he declared traitors.

不患人之不己知 患不知人也
硕鼠硕鼠 无食我黍 三岁贯女 莫我肯顾
微斯人 吾谁与归

宾语后置^{（因宾语太长，先说状语）}

• He has proved them wrong. ⇒ He has proved wrong the forecasts made by the country’s leading economic experts.
•  In 1928 some porpoises were photographed working like beavers to push ashore a waterlogged mattress.
• It has to be tall because it is like a giant block and tackle, and we have to lower into the ground and haul out of the ground great lengths of drill pipe which are rotated by an engine at the top and are fitted with a cutting bit at the bottom.

be worthy of n./doing ^{值得…；配得上…}

• His dedicated service is worthy of the highest praise. ^{他的敬业服务值得最高赞誉。}
• Your diligence is worthy of encouragement, but effort does not equal accomplishment. ^{你的勤奋值得鼓励，但努力不等于成就。}
• The bank might think you're worthy of a loan. ^{这家银行可能认为你应该得到一笔贷款。}

have a way of doing sth. ^{often or usually do sth. 往往，常常}

• Ruth has a way of ignoring me that drives me mad.
• That critical spirit has a way of boomeranging. ^{那种批评的精神会使你自食其果。}
• Life has a way of throwing these curve balls at us. ^{生活用它自己的方式不断向我们抛出曲线球。}

…, we usually think, … ^{本文替换 have a way of ..}

commonplace ^{adj. happening or existing in many places, and therefore not special or unusual 寻常的，司空见惯的，不足为奇的}

• All these computer uses have become commonplace.
• Eating three meals a day is considered behaviour at its most commonplace in many cultures.^{在许多文化中，一天吃三餐被认为是行为中最平常无奇的。}

at one’s + 形容词最高级 ^{处于…最…的状态}

• At the age of twelve years, the human body is at its most vigorous.
• The garden is at its most beautiful in June.
• Caesar was at his most powerful when he conquered Gaul.

As a matter of fact, it is the other way around.

 the other way around / round ^{情况恰恰相反}

• I thought he was the boss and she was his secretary, but in fact it was the other way around. 
• I don't help him; it's the other way around—he helps me. ^{不是我帮他；正相反，是他帮我。}
• Most people think the boss helps the employees, but in this company, it is the other way around.^{大多数人认为老板帮助员工，但在这家公司，情况恰恰相反。}

Traditional custom, taken the world over, is a mass of detailed behaviour more astonishing than what any one person can ever evolve in individual actions, no matter how aberrant.

the world over ^{在全世界；遍及全球}

• Football is a sport that is loved by millions the world over. ^{足球是一项深受全世界数百万人喜爱的运动。}
• The impact of climate change, taken the world over, is undeniable.^{气候变化的影响，从全世界来看，是不可否认的。}

a mass of... / masses of... ^{大量的；大块的；一堆}

• This caused the construction of gigantic buildings where too large masses of human beings are crowded together.
• The star appeared as a mass of burning gas in the telescope. ^{这颗恒星在望远镜中呈现为一团燃烧的气体。}
• He has masses of work to do before the weekend. ^{周末前他有大量的工作要做。}
• The complex ritual involved a mass of detailed behaviour that had to be followed precisely.^{复杂的仪式涉及一堆必须精确遵循的细节行为。}

evolve ^{v. to develop and change gradually 演变}

• Popular music evolved from folk songs.
• The group gradually evolved into a political party.
• Animals have evolved camouflage to protect themselves from predators.

aberrant ^{adj. abnormal 异常的}

• Taking drugs may result in aberrant behavior. 
• The leader remained calm, no matter how aberrant the team's suggestions became.^{这位领导者保持冷静，无论团队的建议变得多么反常。}
• Aberrant behaviour, often brought on by boredom, is not unusual in zoo animals. ^{在动物园里，类似的异常行为并不罕见。}

Yet that is a rather trivial aspect of the matter.

trivial ^{adj. not serious, important, or valuable 微不足道的}

• I know it sounds trivial, but I'm worried about it.
• The cost was considered a rather trivial aspect compared to the overall safety benefits.^{与整体安全效益相比，成本被认为是一个相当微不足道的方面。}

The fact of first-rate importance is the predominant role that custom plays in experience and in belief, and the very great varieties it may manifest.

of … importance ^{（具有）…重要性的}

• The cultivation of a hobby and new forms of interest is therefore a policy of the first importance to a public man.
• The security of user data is of paramount importance to our company. ^{用户数据的安全对我们公司来说至关重要。}

play a … role / part in … ^{在…中起…作用/扮演…角色}

• Education plays a vital role in shaping a person's future. ^{教育在塑造一个人的未来方面起着至关重要的作用。}
• Diet and exercise both play a major part in maintaining good health. ^{饮食和运动在保持身体健康方面都起着重要作用。}

variety ^{n. 1. [C] 种类}

• Scientists discovered that this particular variety of rabbit (and apparently no other animal) was susceptible to a fatal virus disease, myxomatosis.
• No two sorts of birds practise quite the same sort of flight; the varieties are infinite; but two classes may be roughly seen.

variety ^{2. [U] 千变万化，多样性}

• There is so much variety that you never have to make do with second best.
• Today, enough soundings are available to enable a relief map of the Atlantic to be drawn and we know something of the great variety of the sea bed's topography.

a variety of … ^{各种各样的}

• By comparison, trips by sea offer a great variety of civilized comforts.
• The museum features a variety of exhibits, ranging from ancient artifacts to modern art. ^{博物馆展出各种各样的展品，从古代文物到现代艺术应有尽有。}

manifest ^{vt. 使…显露出来；表明；显现}

• Musical talent usually manifests itself in childhood.
• Social tensions often manifest themselves in the form of street protests. ^{社会紧张局势经常以街头抗议的形式显现出来。}
• The disease may manifest through a wide range of seemingly unrelated symptoms.^{这种疾病可能通过一系列看似不相关的症状表现出来。}

No man ever looks at the world with pristine eyes.

pristine ^{adj. extremely clean or new 纯洁的，全新的}

• He has a pristine reputation.
• The bike was in pristine condition.
• She viewed the ancient ruins with pristine eyes, as if seeing them for the first time.^{她用纯净的眼睛看待这些古代遗址，仿佛是第一次看到。}
• To truly appreciate art, you must try to look at it with pristine eyes.^{要真正欣赏艺术，你必须努力用纯净的眼睛去看待它。}
• The tourist was encouraged to see the landscape with pristine eyes, free from preconceptions.^{游客被鼓励用纯净的眼睛，不受先入之见地看待风景。}

He sees it edited by a definite set of customs and institutions and ways of thinking.

 institution ^{1. [C] 大型机构}

• Banks, credit unions, and insurance companies are all examples of a financial institution. ^{银行、信用合作社和保险公司都是金融机构的例子。}
• The city is home to several prestigious educational institutions, including two major universities. ^{这座城市拥有几所著名的教育机构，包括两所主要大学。}
• He left his entire fortune to a charitable institution dedicated to cancer research. ^{他将全部遗产留给了一家致力于癌症研究的慈善机构。}

institution ^{2. [C] 风俗习惯}

• Drinking tea at 4 pm is a popular British institution.
• He sees it edited by a definite set of customs and institutions and ways of thinking.^{他看到它被一套固定的习俗、制度和思维方式所修正。}
• Changes in customs and institutions take generations to fully implement.^{习俗和制度的改变需要几代人的时间才能完全实施。}
• Understanding a country requires studying its history, customs and institutions.^{了解一个国家需要研究它的历史、习俗和制度。}

As can be seen in this cartoon, a soccer player is on the point of making a penalty kick whereas a goalkeeper is preparing himself for it. Two different images pop up in their minds at the same time: the attacker is under the illusion that the goalkeeper is as big as the goal so that it is almost impossible for him to shoot in while the keeper, on the other hand, is daunted by the delusion that he turns helpless dwarf guarding a gigantic goal.

The lesson we can draw from this picture is clear and simple: all too often one overestimates the challenges and difficulties he faces and underrates his capabilities to cope with them. No man ever looks at this world with pristine eyes. He sees it edited by his own feelings and ways of thinking. This is especially the case when one is at a critical time in his life. Fears and tension preoccupy him at this very moment, truth distorted and confidence destroyed.

To calm his nerves and pluck up his courage, he has to realize what the truth is and admit that it is not the end of the world if he fails at this time. Then gradually, and often quite swiftly, the process of recuperation begins and a better result may be anticipated. ^{GRE写作范例}

edited by ^{被…所修正/筛选}

• The historical narrative is often edited by the victors.^{历史叙事常常被胜利者所修正。}
• Our perception of reality is subtly edited by our cultural background.^{我们对现实的感知被我们的文化背景巧妙地修正了。}
• Every piece of data was carefully edited by the researchers before publication.^{在发表之前，每条数据都经过研究人员的仔细筛选。}

a definite set of ^{一套明确的/固定的}

• The experiment followed a definite set of procedures to ensure consistency.^{实验遵循一套明确的程序以确保一致性。}
• Success requires adherence to a definite set of principles.^{成功需要遵守一套固定的原则。}
• Each society operates under a definite set of rules and institutions.^{每个社会都在一套明确的规则和制度下运作。}

Even in his philosophical probings he cannot go behind these stereotypes; his very concepts of the true and the false will still have reference to his particular traditional customs.

probe ^{v. to ask questions in order to find out secret or hidden information about sb./sth. 打探， 探究，调查}

• He didn’t like the media probing into his past. ^vi.
• a TV programme that probed government scandals in the 1990s ^vt.

stereotype ^{n. [C] image, idea, character, etc. that has become fixed or standardized in a conventional form without individuality 陈规，老一套，旧框框}

• He doesn’t conform to the usual stereotype of the city businessman with a dark suit and rolled umbrella.   ^{他不像典型的城市商人那样,   穿一身深色的西装、带一把收好的雨伞。}
• They're reminded of a positive stereotype that boosts their morale. ^{他们想起了一种正面的刻板印象，从而得到了鼓舞。}
• This is what psychologist, Claude Steele, described as stereotype threat. ^{这就是心理学家克劳德·斯蒂尔所描述的刻板印象威胁。}
• The advertisement aims to challenge harmful gender stereotypes.^{这则广告旨在挑战有害的性别刻板印象。}
• It is difficult to completely avoid the influence of cultural stereotypes.^{要完全避免文化定型观念的影响是很困难的。}
• These established patterns of thinking are deeply ingrained stereotypes.^{这些既定的思维模式是根深蒂固的定型观念。}

prototype ^{n. [C] first or original example of sth. that has been or will be copied or developed; model or preliminary version 事物之原始形态，原型，雏形，模型，蓝本}

• the prototype for future school buildings ^{未来的学校建筑的模型}
• a prototype supersonic aircraft ^{超音速飞机的样机}

very ^{adj. (used to emphasize a n. 用以加强名词的语气)}

• He knows our very thoughts. ^{他了解我们内心深处的想法。}
• The very idea of going abroad delighted him. ^{他想到出国一事就很欢喜。}

have reference to … ^与…有关

• This has no reference to what we were discussing.
• His very concepts of the true and the false will still have reference to his particular traditional customs.^{他关于真与假的概念仍然会参照他特定的传统习俗。}
• All interpretations of the contract must have reference to the original text.^{对合同的所有解释都必须参照原文。}
• The new law will primarily have reference to environmental protection policies.^{新法律将主要与环境保护政策相关。}

philosophical probings ^哲学探索

• His book is a collection of deep philosophical probings into the nature of existence.^{他的书是一系列对存在本质的深刻哲学探索。}
• The debate encouraged profound philosophical probings among the students.^{这场辩论鼓励了学生们进行深刻的哲学探索。}
• Throughout history, humans have engaged in philosophical probings to understand morality.^{纵观历史，人类一直致力于哲学探索以理解道德。}

go behind ^{超越/深入追究}

• He cannot go behind these stereotypes.^{他不能超越这些刻板印象。}
• We must go behind the surface appearances to find the real cause of the problem.^{我们必须深入追究表面现象，找出问题的真正原因。}
• The journalist tried to go behind the official statement to uncover the truth.^{这位记者试图深入追究官方声明，以揭露真相。}

John Dewey has said in all seriousness that the part played by custom in shaping the behaviour of the individual, as against any way in which he can affect traditional custom, is as the proportion of the total vocabulary of his mother tongue against those words of his own baby talk that are taken up into the vernacular of his family.

A as against B is as C against D ^{A 对于 B，就如同 C 对于 D(句子的骨架结构)}

• The military power of the US, as against that of DPRK, is as the strength of an elephant against that of a mouse.
• In terms of speed, an email as against a letter is as a jet against a bicycle. ^{就速度而言，电子邮件之于书信，正如喷气式飞机之于自行车。}
• We analyzed the number of sales this quarter as against the same period last year.^{我们分析了本季度的销售额与去年同期相比的情况。}
• Their profits were high this year as against the disappointing results of the previous decade.^{他们今年的利润很高，与过去十年令人失望的结果相比。}

John Dewey: American philosopher, psychologist and educator

take sth. ⇔ up ^{to accept a suggestion, offer, or idea 接受}

• Rob took up the invitation to visit.
• She was eager to take up the challenge of managing the new project. ^{她渴望接受管理这个新项目的挑战。}
• When I took the job I thought I could change the system, but it's hard.  ^{当我接受这份工作时我以为我能改变这种体制，但太难了。}

vernacular ^{n. [C] language or dialect spoken in a particular country or region, as compared with a formal or written language 本地话，方言土语}

• Write a narrative descriptive passage in a vernacular other than your own. ^{用别人的方式写一段描述性的叙述，不是用你自己的语言。}
• Certain regional phrases are taken up into the vernacular of his family after moving.^{搬家后，某些区域性的短语被吸收到他家庭的日常用语中。}
• Only a few slang terms were taken up into the vernacular of his family.^{只有少数俚语被吸收到他家庭的日常用语中。}

in all seriousness ^{非常认真地}

• I tell you this in all seriousness. ^{我严肃地告诉你这事。}
• I asked the question in all seriousness, expecting a thoughtful reply.^{我非常认真地提出了这个问题，期待着深思熟虑的答复。}
• The professor warned them, in all seriousness, about the difficulty of the final exam.^{这位教授非常认真地警告了他们期末考试的难度。}

When one seriously studies the social orders that have had the opportunity to develop autonomously, the figure becomes no more than an exact and matter-of-fact observation.

 autonomous ^{adj. 自治的，独立的}

• They proudly declared themselves part of a new autonomous province.
• He treated us as autonomous individuals who had to learn to make up our own minds about important issues.
• The remote team was allowed to develop autonomously, without constant micromanagement.^{这个远程团队被允许自主发展，没有持续的微观管理。}
• The research facility must develop autonomously to ensure unbiased findings.^{研究设施必须自主发展，以确保公正的发现。}

figure ^{n. figure of speech 比喻修辞}

• ‘Get up with the lark’ is a figure (of speech), meaning 'Get out of bed early'.
• Antithesis is a figure of speech in rhetoric. ^{对照是修辞学中的一个修辞格。}
• Think "broken heart" is just a figure of speech? Think again. ^{觉得“心碎”只是一个比喻修辞说法？}

no more than ^{=only 只不过}

• It will take no more than five days to read the book.
• It's no more than a misunderstanding.
• The error turned out to be no more than a simple typo in the code.^{这个错误结果只不过是代码中的一个简单错字。}
• His contribution was no more than a minor suggestion at the start of the project.^{他的贡献只不过是项目开始时的一个微小建议。}

matter-of-fact ^{adj. showing no emotion when you are talking about sth. exciting, frightening, upsetting etc. 不带个人情感的}

• She told us the news of his death in a very matter-of-fact way.  
• He was very matter-of-fact about the breakdown of his marriage.

observation ^{n. remark or comment 言语，评论}

• She made one or two observations about the weather. ^评论
• The witness gave a calm and matter-of-fact observation of the incident.^{这位目击者对事件作了平静而实事求是的观察。}
• Her report was simply a matter-of-fact observation of the experimental results, devoid of interpretation.^{她的报告只是对实验结果的实事求是的观察，没有解读。}

The life history of the individual is first and foremost an accommodation to the patterns and standards traditionally handed down in his community.

first and foremost ^{more than anything else, firstly and most importantly 首要地，主要}

• He does a bit of writing, but first and foremost he’s a teacher.
• First and foremost, we have to consider the morality of the enterprise．
• Our priority is first and foremost the safety of our customers.^{我们的首要任务首先是客户的安全。}
• As a teacher, her job is first and foremost to inspire curiosity.^{作为一名教师，她的工作首先是激发好奇心。}

accommodation to sth. ^{对…的适应}

• the accommodation of my plans to yours
• Living abroad requires a significant accommodation to new social norms.^{在国外生活需要对新的社会规范进行重大的适应。}
• The new software required a rapid accommodation to its changed interface.^{新软件需要快速适应其改变后的界面。}
• Accommodation to a different culture can take several months. ^{适应一种不同的文化可能需要几个月的时间。}

hand sth. down ^{pass sth. from older people to younger ones The recipe was handed down from an ancestor of the family.}

• The only way that they can preserve their history is to recount it as sagas—legends handed down from one generation of storytellers to another.
• The techniques for crafting the pottery were traditionally handed down from master to apprentice.^{制作陶器的技术是传统上传承下来的，从师傅传给学徒。}

community ^{n. a group of people who have the same interests, religion, race etc.  集体，群体}

• He's well liked by people in the community.^{他很受社区人们的喜爱。}
• The whole community was aroused by the crime.^{这个罪行使整个社会行动起来。}
• The residents formed a community action group.^{居民组成了社区行动组。}
• We have good contacts with the local community.^{我们与当地社区关系甚好。}

From the moment of his birth, the customs into which he is born shape his experience and behaviour.

be born into  ^{出生于...（某种家庭背景、社会阶层或环境）}

• He was born into a wealthy family with a long history of political influence. ^{他出生在一个有着悠久政治影响力的富有家庭。}
• Understanding the customs into which he is born is key to understanding the individual.^{理解他出生的习俗是理解这个个体的关键。}
• She was born into a very musical family. ^{她生于音乐之家。}

shape  ^{v.塑造...；决定…的形成}

• Early childhood experiences often shape a person's character for life. ^{童年早期的经历往往会塑造一个人一生的性格。}
• Education and environment profoundly shape his experience and behaviour throughout life.^{教育和环境深刻地塑造了他一生中的经验和行为。}

By the time he can talk, he is the little creature of his culture, and by the time he is grown and able to take part in its activities, its habits are his habits, its beliefs (are) his beliefs, its impossibilities (are) his impossibilities.

creature ^{n. someone who is controlled or influenced a lot by sth. 产物，奴隶，傀儡}

• a creature of habit
• He is a creature of the government.
• Every student, to some extent, is a little creature of his culture, reflecting its values and biases.^{每个学生在某种程度上都是他文化的产物，反映着它的价值观和偏见。}

Every child that is born into his group will share them with him, and no child born into one on the opposite side of the globe can ever achieve the thousandth part.

be born in / into …^{出生于（某种环境、背景或阶层）}

• I was born in Tokyo.
• Meg was born into a large family.
• She was born into a musical family and started playing piano at age four. ^{她出生在一个音乐世家，四岁就开始弹钢琴。}
• A person born into his group inherits a specific social status and network.^{出生在他的群体中的人继承了特定的社会地位和人脉。}

share ^{v. to have the same opinion, quality, or experience as sb. else 有一样的，有共同的}

• I believe my view is widely shared.
• In some moods, Nature shares it. 

share sth. with sb. ^{与某人分享/共用某物}

• I shared my umbrella with a stranger in the pouring rain. ^{我在倾盆大雨中与一个陌生人共用一把伞。}
• He refused to share the information with the police. ^{他拒绝向警方透露（分享）这些信息。}
• People often share their political views with their parents.
• Stubbornness was a characteristic he shared with his mother.
• The children will share the traditions with him as they grow older.^{孩子们长大后会与他分享这些传统。}

There is no social problem (which) it is more incumbent upon us to understand than this of the role of custom.

social problem ^社会问题

• Homelessness remains a pressing social problem in major cities.^{无家可归仍然是主要城市中一个紧迫的社会问题。}
• The government established a task force to tackle the root causes of the social problem.^{政府成立了一个工作组来解决这个社会问题的根源。}

it is incumbent upon / on sb. to do sth. ^{某人有责任/义务做某事}

• It is incumbent upon parents to control what their children watch on TV.
• There is no ethical dilemma it is more incumbent upon us to address than this of data privacy.^{没有哪个伦理困境比数据隐私更需要我们去解决。}
• There is no task it is more incumbent upon us to complete than this crucial system upgrade.^{没有哪个任务比这次关键的系统升级更需要我们去完成。}

Until we are intelligent as to its laws and varieties, the main complicating facts of human life must remain unintelligible.

intelligent ^{adj. showing powers of understanding 能够理解的，了解的}

• The vast majority of us are not intelligent about the whole thing.
• We must become intelligent as to the new regulations before proceeding.^{在进行之前，我们必须对新法规有所认识。}
• The team needs to be intelligent as to the competitive landscape before launching the product.^{在推出产品之前，团队需要对竞争格局有所深入了解。}

as to prep. = about = with regard to ^{关于，对于}

• He was uncertain as to which road to take.
• We are puzzled as to how it happened.
• There is no doubt as to his ability to do the job. ^{对于他胜任这项工作的能力，毋庸置疑。}

unintelligible ^{adj. impossible to understand 不可能理解的，难懂的}

• What he said was completely unintelligible to me because he used many technical terms.
• Without the decryption key, the encrypted message must remain unintelligible.^{没有解密密钥，加密信息必定仍然难以理解。}
• He answered in words unintelligible to her. ^{他用她听不懂的话来回答。}
• The terms were unintelligible to ordinary folk . ^{这些术语一般人是不懂的。}

The study of custom can be profitable only after certain preliminary propositions have been accepted, and some of these propositions have been violently opposed.

preliminary ^{adj. coming before a more important action or event, preparatory 开端的，初步的， 预备性的}

• After a few preliminary remarks about the weather, the speaker dove straight into the main topic. ^{在说了几句关于天气的开场白之后，演讲者直接进入了正题。}
• The preliminary experiments showed promising inquiries / experiments / negotiations, but more testing is needed. ^{初步调查 / 实验 / 谈判显示出了令人满意的结果，但仍需进一步测试。}
• She performed exceptionally well in the preliminary contest and moved on to the finals. ^{她在预赛中表现异常出色，顺利晋级决赛。}
• The team must agree on the preliminary propositions before starting the complex analysis.^{团队必须在开始复杂的分析之前就初步命题达成一致。}
• We spent the morning discussing the preliminary propositions that form the basis of the research.^{我们花了一个上午讨论构成研究基础的初步命题。}

proposition ^{n. statement that expresses a judgement or an opinion, assertion 观点，见解，主张}

• The proposition is so clear that it needs no explanation.
• I approve of the proposition that love alone can waken love.
• As a business proposition, it's a non-starter. ^{作为一份商业建议，它不可能取得成功。}

profitable ^{adj.有益的/有利可图的}

• Investing in renewable energy has proven to be a profitable long-term strategy.^{投资可再生能源已被证明是一个有利可图的长期战略。}
• Sharing knowledge and resources makes the collaboration more profitable for everyone involved.^{分享知识和资源使协作对所有参与者更有益。}
• The production of coffee beans is a huge, profitable business. ^{咖啡豆的生产是一项庞大且有利可图的业务。}

In the first place, any scientific study requires that there (should) be no preferential weighting of one or another of the items in the series it selects for its consideration.

in the first place ^{首先/第一点；起初（常用于解释原因或列举理由）}

• In the first place, I’m too busy, and in the second, I don’t really want to go.
• In the first place, we need to secure funding before hiring more staff.^{首先，我们需要在招聘更多员工之前确保资金到位。}
• I should never have taken that job in the first place. ^{我起初（从一开始）就不该接受那份工作。}

preferential ^{adj. of, giving, receiving or showing preference 优先的，给予优先的，得到优先的， 优待的}

• Europe has given Caribbean banana growers preferential treatment for more than 20 years.
• Firstborn sons received preferential treatment. ^{长子们受到了优等待遇。}
• He had promised that the rich and privileged would no longer get preferential treatment. ^{他已承诺富人和特权阶层将不会再得到优待。}

weight ^{vt. [esp passive 尤用於被动语态] plan or organize (sth.) in a way that favours a particular person or group, bias 计划或组织（某事物）使之偏向某人或某集体，使偏袒}

• a law weighted against those owning land ^{对土地持有者不利的法规}
• a law weighted in favour of those owning land ^{对土地持有者偏袒的法规}
• Fair judgment requires that there be no preferential weighting given to personal relationships.^{公正的评判要求不对私人关系给予偏袒性的权重。}

In all the less controversial fields, like the study of cacti or termites or the mature of nebulae, the necessary method of study is to group the relevant material and to take note of all possible variant forms and conditions.

group ^{v. to make sb./sth. form a group 使聚集，汇集}

• The children grouped themselves around their teacher.
• All the multiple choice questions will be grouped together for convenience.
• Categories can be used to group or sort result sets. ^{可以使用目录对结果集进行分组或排序。}

take note of sth. = pay attention to sth. = take notice of sth. ^{注意 …；留意（常指记在脑子里或纸上）}

• People were beginning to take note of her talents as a writer.
• Please take note of the revision to the schedule. ^{请留意时间表的修订。}

variant ^{adj. having or exhibiting variation; differing 相异的，不同的}

• a variant form of the word
• a variant form of oxygen known as ozone
• Test cases are a variant subset of upstream testing. ^{测试用例是上游测试的不同子集。}

variant ^{n. [C] sth. which is slightly different from other similar things 变种，变体}

• There are many colas on the market now, all variants on the original drink.
• There are four variants of malaria, all transmitted to humans by a particular family of mosquitoes.
• It is crucial for field biologists to take note of all possible variant forms and conditions of the local ecosystem.^{对于野外生物学家来说，注意到当地生态系统的所有可能的变异形式和条件至关重要。}

In this way, we have learned all that we know of the laws of astronomy, or of the habits of the social insects, let us say.

(let us) say ^{for example 比如说，例如}

• To see the problem here more clearly, let’s look at a different biological system, (let us) say, an acorn.
• The Americans would happily reach one accord on standards for medical devices and then hammer out different pacts covering, say, electronic goods and drug manufacturing.
• The project will require a large investment, let us say, around ten million dollars.^{这个项目将需要一大笔投资，比如，大约一千万美元。}

It is only in the study of man himself that the major social sciences have substituted the study of one local variation, that of Western civilization.

It is only in the study of man himself that the major social sciences have substituted the study of one local variation, that of Western civilization, (for the study of custom of all human beings).  ^{补全 (substitute A for B)}

substitute A for B ^{用 A 代替 B}

• You can substitute honey for sugar in this recipe. ^{在这份食谱中，你可以用蜂蜜代替白糖。}
• The company has substituted the study of user feedback for reliance on internal assumptions.^{该公司已用用户反馈的研究来代替对内部假设的依赖。}
• You can substitute chicken for beef if you don’t like red meat. 

Anthropology was by definition impossible, as long as these distinctions between ourselves and the primitive, ourselves and the barbarian, ourselves and the pagan, held sway over people's minds.

by definition ^{if sth. has a particular quality by definition, it must have that quality because all things of that type have it 从本质上来说;根据定义/本质上} 

• People say that students are by definition idealistic and impatient.
• Human perception is highly imperfect and by definition subjective.
• A square is by definition a rectangle with four equal sides.^{一个正方形根据定义就是四条边相等的矩形。}
• Fraud is by definition a deliberate deception to secure unfair or unlawful gain.^{欺诈本质上是为了获得不公平或非法的利益而进行的蓄意欺骗。}

hold sway ^{to be the main influence on people’s opinions or behavior 占主导地位(书面语)}

• The traditional idea of wearing new clothes on New Year’s day seems no longer to hold sway.
• For decades, the ideology of the ruling party held sway over people's minds.^{几十年来，执政党的意识形态一直支配着人们的思想。}
• Superstition often holds sway over people's minds in times of uncertainty.^{在不确定时期，迷信往往会支配人们的思想。}

It was necessary first to arrive at that degree of sophistication where we no longer set our own belief against our neighbour's superstition.

set … against … ^{make sb. oppose or be hostile to (a friend, relative, etc) 使某人反对或敌视（朋友、亲戚等）}

• The civil war set brother against brother.
• She accused her husband of setting their children against her.
• It is counterproductive to set our own methods against those of the new team members.^{将我们自己的方法与新团队成员的方法对立起来是事与愿违的。}

arrive at ^{达到/得出（结论、理解）}

• After hours of discussion, the committee was finally able to arrive at a consensus.^{经过数小时的讨论，委员会最终能够达成共识。}
• Go straight on, and in the evening you will arrive at a castle. ^{一直往前走，傍晚时你就会到达一座城堡。}
• Put a deadline on the input stage and arrive at a decision, even if it's a decision that doesn't have consensus. ^{你要在输入阶段设定一个最后期限并作出决定，即使这个决定没有达成共识。}
• We use information that we perceive through our senses to help us make decisions, to arrive at beliefs and so on. ^{我们利用我们通过感官感知到的信息来帮助我们做决定，达成信念等等。}

It was necessary to recognize that these institutions which are based on the same premises, let us say the supernatural, must be considered together, our own among the rest.

premise ^{n. statement or idea on which reasoning is based, hypothesis（推理所依据的）前提， 假定}

• Advice to investors was based on the premise that interest rates would continue to fall.
• Which premise would you reject? ^{你们反对哪个前提？}
• That's the crucial premise. ^{这是个很关键的前提。}
• We might need a suppressed premise. ^{我们可能需要一个隐含的前提。}

supernatural ^{adj. that cannot be explained by natural or physical laws 超自然的}

• supernatural beings, eg angels and devils
• witch-doctors believed to have supernatural powers
• Small wonder that an Indian legend described Devils Tower as being formed by supernatural powers. ^{难怪印度传说中魔鬼塔是由超自然力量形成的。}

our own (being) among the rest ^独立主语

be among … ^{是…之一；包括在…之中}

• He was among the last to leave.
• Among those present were the Prime Minister and her husband.
• These ocean waves are among the earth's most complicated natural phenomena.
• The committee reviewed all proposals, our own among the rest, to ensure impartiality.^{委员会审查了所有提案，包括我们自己的在内，以确保公正性。}